Patronage of Science- the Royal Society –the Study of Natural History, Natural Philosophy and Natural Religion-Negation of Dogmatism in Religion and the Acceptance of Empiricism

Patronage of Science in Restoration England:
The Royal Society and the Rise of Empiricism

The Restoration period in England (1660 onwards) witnessed a profound transformation in scientific inquiry and intellectual thought. Charles II’s patronage of science, the establishment of the Royal Society, and the emphasis on natural history, natural philosophy, and natural religion played a crucial role in shaping modern empirical science. This era marked a departure from medieval scholasticism and religious dogmatism, embracing experimentation, observation, and rational inquiry.

1. Patronage of Science and the Royal Society

Charles II’s Role in Advancing Scientific Inquiry

The return of Charles II to the throne in 1660 coincided with an increasing interest in scientific advancements. Unlike his father, Charles I, who was more focused on the arts, Charles II had a keen interest in scientific experimentation, technology, and natural philosophy. His court included scholars, physicians, and natural philosophers who sought his support for scientific endeavors.


The most significant development in this period was the establishment of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge in 1660. Inspired by earlier informal gatherings of scholars at Oxford and Gresham College in London, the Royal Society became England’s first official scientific institution.

The Royal Society: Foundation and Objectives

  • Founded: November 28, 1660, officially receiving a royal charter from Charles II in 1662.
  • Motto: Nullius in verba (“Take nobody’s word for it”)—a declaration of commitment to empirical evidence over authority or dogma.
  • Key Figures:
    • Robert Boyle (chemist, physicist) – Formulated Boyle’s Law on gas pressure and volume.
    • Robert Hooke (natural philosopher, architect) – Author of Micrographia, pioneer of microscopy.
    • Isaac Newton (physicist, mathematician) – Later became President of the Royal Society; developed the laws of motion and universal gravitation.
    • Christopher Wren (architect, astronomer) – Made contributions to physics and mathematics.

Impact of the Royal Society

  • Encouraged experimental science and systematic observation.
  • Published research findings in Philosophical Transactions, the first scientific journal in history.
  • Fostered collaboration among scientists across Europe, leading to the broader European Enlightenment.
  • Helped move England toward a scientific revolution, where empirical investigation replaced traditional authority-based learning
2. The Study of Natural History, Natural Philosophy, and Natural Religion
The Restoration era saw an explosion of interest in understanding nature, its processes, and its relationship with divine order. The Royal Society encouraged the study of natural history, natural philosophy, and natural religion, each of which played a distinct role in advancing scientific thought.


Natural History: Observing and Classifying Nature

Natural history, the study of plants, animals, and minerals, flourished as scholars sought to catalog the diversity of life and explain natural phenomena.

  • John Ray (1627–1705): A pioneering naturalist, Ray developed one of the earliest systems for classifying plants and animals based on structural similarities, laying the groundwork for later taxonomy.
  • Robert Hooke’s Micrographia (1665): Hooke’s detailed illustrations of microscopic organisms revealed a hidden world of complexity, changing how scientists understood life.


  • Global Expeditions: The Royal Society supported overseas explorations, leading to new discoveries in botany, zoology, and geology.

Natural Philosophy: The Birth of Modern Science

Natural philosophy, the precursor to modern science, sought to explain the fundamental laws of nature through reason, observation, and experimentation.

  • The Mechanical Philosophy: Inspired by René Descartes and Francis Bacon, this view suggested that the universe operated like a machine, governed by predictable laws.
  • Robert Boyle’s Work in Chemistry: Boyle, often called the "father of modern chemistry," challenged Aristotle’s four-element theory and promoted an early version of atomic theory.


  • Isaac Newton’s Laws of Motion and Gravitation: Newton’s groundbreaking work in physics established a universal framework for understanding motion and forces. His book Principia Mathematica (1687) became one of the most influential scientific works of all time.

Natural Religion: Reconciling Science and Faith

Despite the rise of empirical science, many scholars in the Restoration period sought to integrate scientific discoveries with religious belief. Natural religion—the idea that nature itself was evidence of divine order—became a central theme in scientific thought.

  • The Argument from Design: Thinkers like John Ray and Robert Boyle argued that the complexity of nature was proof of God’s existence and intelligence. This idea would later influence William Paley’s "watchmaker" analogy in the 18th century.
  • Newton’s Theological Views: Although deeply religious, Newton rejected dogmatic interpretations of Christianity. He believed the laws of physics were manifestations of divine order rather than contradictions to faith.

While the Royal Society avoided religious controversies, many of its members saw no contradiction between scientific discovery and belief in a Creator.

3. The Negation of Dogmatism in Religion and the Acceptance of Empiricism

The Decline of Religious Dogmatism

Before the Restoration, England was marked by deep religious divisions—Puritanism under Cromwell had imposed strict moral codes, while earlier conflicts between Catholics and Protestants had led to persecution. However, the Restoration brought a more pragmatic and tolerant approach to religion.

  • The Royal Society’s Secular Stance: Unlike medieval universities, which were dominated by religious authority, the Royal Society promoted knowledge free from theological restrictions.
  • Rejection of Scholasticism: The medieval tradition of relying on the Church and classical authorities (like Aristotle) for knowledge was replaced by direct observation and experimentation.

Empiricism: The Foundation of Modern Science

Empiricism—the idea that knowledge should come from sensory experience and evidence rather than pure reason or religious dogma—became the dominant approach in Restoration science.

  • Francis Bacon’s Influence: Bacon’s earlier works, advocating inductive reasoning and systematic experimentation, greatly influenced the Royal Society.
  • John Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690): Locke, a key empiricist philosopher, argued that all knowledge comes from experience rather than innate ideas, challenging traditional views upheld by the Church.
  • Newtonian Science: Newton’s reliance on mathematical laws rather than divine explanations reinforced the idea that nature operated according to empirical principles rather than religious doctrine.

Tensions Between Empiricism and Religion

While many thinkers sought harmony between science and religion, some saw empirical inquiry as a challenge to traditional religious authority. The growing acceptance of rationalism and scientific skepticism would later contribute to the Enlightenment, where figures like Voltaire and David Hume openly questioned religious dogma.

4. Conclusion

The Restoration period under Charles II was a turning point for scientific progress in England. The founding of the Royal Society institutionalized empirical research, while studies in natural history, natural philosophy, and natural religion pushed the boundaries of human knowledge. The rejection of dogmatism in religion and the rise of empiricism paved the way for the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment.

This era laid the groundwork for modern scientific inquiry, demonstrating that observation, experimentation, and reason—not religious authority—were the keys to understanding the natural world.



Prepared by
Jacob Eapen Kunnath
Dept. of English, CMS College Kottayam (Autonomous)


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